The argument from morality is a philosophical argument that seeks to demonstrate the existence of God or a higher moral authority based on the existence of objective moral values and duties. This argument has been presented in various forms by different philosophers and theologians throughout history and remains a central topic in debates about the foundations of ethics and theism.
Key Components of the Argument from Morality
- Objective Moral Values and Duties: The argument begins with the premise that objective moral values and duties exist, meaning that some actions are morally right or wrong independently of human opinion or belief. These objective values imply a standard of morality that transcends individual or cultural perspectives.
- The Source of Objective Morality: Proponents of the argument claim that the existence of objective moral values and duties requires an explanation. They argue that these moral standards must be grounded in something outside of human nature—specifically, in a moral lawgiver, which is often identified as God.
- Moral Lawgiver: The central idea is that if objective moral values exist, there must be a source or lawgiver who established these values. Without a divine being or a higher moral authority, proponents argue that morality would be subjective and relative, varying across cultures and individuals.
Forms of the Argument
There are several formulations of the argument from morality, each emphasizing different aspects of moral reasoning and the implications for the existence of God.
1. Kant’s Moral Argument
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant presented one of the most famous versions of the moral argument. Kant argued that the existence of moral law implies the necessity of a just, moral God. For Kant, the moral law within us (the “categorical imperative”) points to a higher authority that ensures justice. He reasoned that since morality requires that the virtuous be rewarded and the wicked punished, this necessitates the existence of a moral afterlife and a just God.
- Key Concept: Kant did not claim that the existence of morality proves God’s existence directly, but that moral duty makes belief in God reasonable, as it provides the best explanation for the existence of moral obligations and justice.
2. C.S. Lewis’ Argument
The Christian apologist C.S. Lewis offered a version of the moral argument in his book Mere Christianity. Lewis argued that our sense of right and wrong is evidence of a moral law that exists beyond humanity. He suggested that if there were no God, then moral values would be mere human inventions, subject to change and disagreement. However, because people universally recognize some basic moral principles, Lewis argued that this points to a divine moral lawgiver.
- Key Concept: Lewis emphasized the universality of certain moral intuitions as evidence for God, suggesting that without God, moral values would lack objective grounding.
3. The Contemporary Moral Argument
Modern defenders of the moral argument, like philosopher William Lane Craig, present the argument in a syllogistic form:
- If God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist.
- Objective moral values and duties do exist.
- Therefore, God exists.
This formulation argues that without God, there is no objective basis for moral values, leaving morality as a human construct. The existence of objective morals, however, requires a divine foundation.
Criticisms of the Argument from Morality
The argument from morality has faced several criticisms, particularly from secular philosophers and proponents of atheism.
1. Moral Relativism
Critics argue that morality is subjective and shaped by cultural, social, and individual factors rather than being objectively grounded in a divine source. According to moral relativism, what is considered moral can vary significantly across societies, and there is no need to posit a God to explain this variability.
2. Secular Moral Foundations
Many philosophers argue that objective moral values can exist independently of God. Secular moral realism posits that moral truths exist in a similar way to mathematical or logical truths—objective but not necessarily tied to a divine being. Thinkers like Sam Harris argue that human well-being can serve as a foundation for morality without appealing to supernatural sources.
3. Euthyphro Dilemma
One of the classic criticisms of the argument from morality is the Euthyphro dilemma, which originates from Plato. The dilemma asks: “Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?” This raises a challenge for theistic moral arguments, as it suggests that either morality is arbitrary (if God can command anything) or that morality exists independently of God (if God commands something because it is inherently good).
The argument from morality is a powerful and longstanding argument in both philosophical and theological discourse. It appeals to the existence of objective moral values and duties as evidence for the existence of God or a higher moral authority. While it remains a compelling argument for many theists, it has also sparked significant debate and criticism, especially from secular thinkers who offer alternative explanations for the foundations of morality.